THE  MUSCULAR  STRENGTH  OF 
COLLEGE  WOMEN 

WITH  SOME  CONSIDERATION  OF  ITS  DISTRIBUTION  : 

PRELIMINARY  PAPER 


CLELIA  DUEL  MOSHER,  A.M.,  M.D. 

Assistant  Professor  of  Personal  Hygiene,  Leland  Stanford  Junior 

University 

AND 

ERNEST  GALE  MARTIN,  Ph.D. 

Professor  of  Physiology,  Leland  Stanford  Junior  University 
STANFORD  UNIVERSITY,  CALIF. 


The  present  world  war  has  called  women  to  tasks 
totally  unsuited  to  the  accepted  standards  of  womerfs 
physical  strength  and  capacities.  At  the  present  time, 
therefore,  when  our  nation  needs  to  mobilize  every 
particle  of  woman  power  as  well  as  man  power,  it 
is  well  to  determine  with  as  much  definiteness  as  possi¬ 
ble  what  that  power  may  be.  In  the  case  of  woman 
particularly,  it  is  useful  to  know  whether  these  unprec¬ 
edented  demands  on  her  strength  and  activities  are 
liable  to  make  her  racially  less  efficient,  and  whether 
many  of  the  handicaps  are  real  or  only  traditional. 

In  hope  of  gaining  more  exact  information  con¬ 
cerning  the  muscular  strength  of  woman,  this  study 
was  undertaken. 

Dr.  Martin’s  method  of  testing  muscular  strength,1 
originally  devised  for  the  study  of  cases  of  anterior 
poliomyelitis,  was  used.  Forty-five  average  healthy 
college  women,  most  of  whom  had  always  been  phys¬ 
ically  active,  although,  in  the  majority  of  the  instances, 
not  specially  athletic,  were  studied.2 

In  the  progress  of  this  work,  certain  improvements 
in  the  manner  of  applying  the  spring  balance  method 
to  adults  were  devised. 


1.  Martin,  E.  G.,  and  Lovett,  R.  W. :  A  Method  of  Testing  Muscular 
Strength  in  Infantile  Paralysis,  The  Journal  A.  M.  A.,  Oct.  30,  1915, 
p.  1512.  Lovett,  R.  W.:  The  Treatment  of  Infantile  Paralysis,  p.  152. 

2.  Miss  Etta  L.  Paris  and  Miss  Inezetta  Holt  of  the  Department  of 
Physical  Training  for  Women,  Stanford  University,  have  given  invalua¬ 
ble  assistance  in  making  these  tests. 


2 


The  following  groups  of  muscles  both  on  the  right 
and  the  left  side  of  each  woman  were  tested :  pectorals, 
latissimus  dorsi,  anterior  and  posterior  deltoids,  fore¬ 
arm  extensors  and  flexors,  wrist  extensors,  thumb 
adductors,  and  either  wrist  flexors  or  finger  flexors. 
The  wrist  flexion  test  was  found  by  some  of  the 
women  to  cause  lameness.  The  finger  flexion  was 
substituted  in  the  later  testing.  These  muscle  grouns 
were  tested  with  the  subject  standing.  The  following 
tests  were  made  in  the  horizontal  position :  dorsal 
flexion,  inversion  and  eversion  of  foot,  adduction  and 
abduction  of  thigh,  hip  extension  and  flexion,  knee 
extension  and  flexion. 

Thus  a  full  test  included  observations  of  thirty-six 
groups  of  muscles.  Each  test  was  repeated  two  or 
three  times,  thus  insuring  as  accurate  observation  as 
possible  by  securing  the  maximum  cooperation  of  the 
woman  on  whom  the  tests  were  made.  The  highest 
record  correctly  made  was  used  in  each  case. 


TABLE  1.— AVERAGE,  MAXIMUM  AND  MINIMUM  STRENGTHS 
FACTORS  OF  FORTY-FIVE  WOMEN  ARRANGED 


Ages 

IN 

AGE  GROUPS 

16-20  20-25 

25-35 

35-56 

All  Ages 

No.  of  cases  .... 

.  .  .  10 

26 

5 

4 

45 

Average  strength  factor  .... 

. .  .  21.5 

23.8 

23 

20.8 

22.5 

Maximum  strength 

factor  . . . 

.  .  .  26.6 

30.4 

25.3 

25.3 

30.4 

Minimum  strength 

factor  . . . 

.  ..  18.4 

19.3 

18.7 

16.6 

16.6 

These  forty-five  women  were  tested  120  times; 
there  were  ninety-five  full  tests  and  twenty-five  partial 
tests.  Every  woman  was  tested  from  two  to  five 
times,  and  3,576  muscle  groups  in  the  forty-five  women 
were  tested.  Dr.  Mosher  made  schematograms3  of 
all  the  women  studied. 

A  convenient  method  of  classifying  the  persons 
studied  is  in  terms  of  “the  strength  factor,”  which  is 
simply  the  figure  obtained  by  dividing  the  total 
strength,  as  determined  by  the  tests,  by  the  weight. 
In  Table  1  the  strength  factors  for  the  entire  group 
of  cases  are  summarized. 

In  Table  2  the  cases  are  grouped  in  accordance  with 
their  strength  factors.  A  study  of  the  table  shows 
that  the  first  group,  which  has  the  lowest  average 
strength  factor,  18.78,  is  made  up  of  the  tallest  and 
heaviest  women,  with  50  per  cent,  of  them  overweight, 

3.  Mosher,  C.  D. :  The  Schematogram  in  School  and  Society,  1, 
May,  1915. 

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the  average  overweight  being  30.1  pounds.  In  this 
group,  also,  three  of  the  eight  women  are  immature 
physically  though  not  sexually,  and  six,  or  75  per  cent., 
show  a  marked  lack  of  coordination. 

The  third  group  has  an  average- strength  factor  of 
26.77,  which  approaches  the  strength  factor  of  the 
group  of  athletic  college  men.  This  group  of  women 
is  especially  remarkable  because  it  is  made  up  almost 
uniformly  of  the  most  perfect  feminine  type.  Two 
cases  (28  and  42),  which  fall  somewhat  below  this 
standard,  will  be  discussed  later.  Members  of  the 
third  group  of  women  are,  on  the  average,  shorter  and 
more  compactly  built,  and  lighter  in  weight  than  mem¬ 
bers  of  either  of  the  other  two  groups. 

We  find  here,  with  only  two  exceptions,  the  women 
with  the  highest  degree  of  coordination.  The  most 

O 


TABLE  2.— FORTY-FIVE 

WOMEN  ARRANGED  IN  GROUPS 

ACCORDING 

TO  STRENGTH  FACTOR 

Strength 

Strength  Facto 

r  Strength 

Factor 

Above  20  and 

Factor 

20  and  Below 

Less  than  25 

25  and  Over 

Number  of  cases  . 

.  8 

26 

11 

Strength  Factor: 

— 

Average  . 

.  18.78 

22.3 

26.77 

Maximum  . 

.  20 

24.6 

30.4 

Minimum  . 

.  16.6 

20.3 

25 

Total  Strength: 

Average  . 

. . . .2,789 

2,960 

3,513 

Maximum  . 

. . . .3,220 

3,330 

4,130 

Minimum  . 

.  .  .  .2,320 

2,565 

3,060 

Average  age  . 

.  27 

23.5 

23-9/,o 

Maximum  age  . 

....  56 

53.3 

42-y12 

Minimum  age  . 

....  18 

18 

16-2/12 

Average  height  . 

....  65 

64.5 

63.7 

Maximum  height  . 

_  68.9 

67.7 

66.4 

Minimum  height  . 

....  62 

60.2 

59.6 

Average  weight  . 

....  148.9 

133.6 

131.6 

Maximum  weight  . 

_  170.8 

154.5 

165.5 

Minimum  weight  . 

_  119.8 

116.4 

112.9 

Overweight  (5  pounds) 

(4) 

(12) 

(5) 

Average  . 

_  30.1 

15.78 

15.5 

Maximum  . 

_  39.5 

32.5 

39.5 

Minimum  . 

....  11 

5.3 

5.4 

Underweight  (5  pounds) 

(5) 

(2) 

Average  . 

* 

11.4 

9.1 

Maximum  . 

* 

17.8 

13.0 

Minimum  . 

* 

5.2 

5.3 

striking  fact  in  connection  with  the  women  of  this 
group  is,  perhaps,  their  history  in  regard  to  exercise. 
Without  exception,  they  have  always  been  physically 
active,  playing  with  brothers  and  boy  cousins  without 
distinction  of  sex,  sharing  the  same  games  and  having 
the  same  activities. 

Case  28,  with  a  strength  factor  of  28.4,  and  Case  42, 
with  a  strength  factor  of  25.5,  also  rather  immature, 


4 


fall  somewhat  below  the  high  average  standard  of 
type  in  this  group,  although  they  both,  in  regard  to 
the  secondary  sexual  characters,  and  functionally,  are 
normal  women.  Both  belong  to  the  tall,  lean  type, 
though  they  lack  the  poise  and  balance  found  so 
uniformly  in  this  group.  They  are  precipitate  in 
action  and  show  a  lesser  degree  of  coordination  than 
the  other  members  of  their  group. 

Case  36,  the  oldest  woman  in  the  group,  aged  42%2* 
is  married,  has  borne  three  children,  and  has  a  strength 
factor  of  25.3.  She  said,  “I  have  played  running 
games  and  a  little  football,  climbed  trees,  ridden  horse¬ 
back,  played  tennis  in  college,  and  had  four  years  of 
gymnastics.  When  there  was  anything  to  do,  such  as 
moving  a  piano  or  a  trunk,  it  never  occurred  to  me  to 
call  a  man.  I  did  whatever  there  was  to  do.  I  have 
never  worn  a  corset,  and  my  clothes  have  been  loose 
and  supported.  When  fashion  demanded  three  petti¬ 
coats,  I  wore  one.”  In  this  middle  period  of  life,  she 
has  retained  her  youthfulness  and  sparkle  to  an 
unusual  degree,  and  is  intellectually  brilliant. 

Case  41,  the  youngest  girl  in  this  group,  aged  16%2> 
has  a  strength  factor  of  26.6.  She  is  a  charming 
young  girl,  very  feminine  in  type,  an  unusually  good 
tennis  player,  is  musical,  and  is  intellectually  of  great 
promise.  This  case  is  of  special  interest  since  a  record 
was  made  of  her  brother,  who  is  only  fourteen  months 
older,  and  whose  strength  factor  was  found  to  be  26.4, 
a  matter  of  0.2  less  than  his  sister’s.  The  two  were 
brought  up  with  the  same  occupations  and  physical 
activities  until  the  girl  was  12  years  old,  when  she  was 
graduated  from  her  overalls  into  skirts  and  into  some 
of  the  conventional  physical  limitations  of  women. 

The  second  group  is  composed  of  women  in  whom 
the  same  causes  are  operative  as  in  the  first  and  the 
third  group.  For  lack  of  space,  the  discussion  of  this 
group  will  be  postponed  to  a  later  paper. 

Four  married  women  ranging  in  age  from  34  to  56 
years  gave  an  average  strength  factor  of  20.8.  The 
maximum  strength  factor  in  this  group  is  25.3,  which 
is  considerably  above  the  average  of  the  whole  group 
of  forty-five  women,  and  is  exceeded  by  only  five 
others  in  the  whole  series  of  women  studied.  The 
four  women  of  this  group  have  borne  thirteen  children. 


\ 


5 


A  general  comparison  of  the  series  of  forty-five 
college  women  with  the  series  of  athletic  college 
men  by  Dr.  Martin  and  Mr.  Rich,4  yields  some  sugges¬ 
tive  results.  Let  us. consider  briefly  the  strength  of  the 
different  muscle  groups. 

The  pectoral  muscles'  are  commonly  relatively 
stronger  in  man  than  in  woman,  the  average  percentage 
of  total  strength  being  2.35  in  man,  and  2.1  in  woman. 
Twelve  women  have  equaled  or  exceeded  the  average 
of  the  men.  Case  35  from  the  second  group,  a  married 
woman  who  has  borne  two  children,  has  in  her  pecto¬ 
rals  2.52  per  cent,  of  her  total  strength.  This  differ¬ 
ence  between  men  and  women,  which  is  apparently  not 
one  of  sex,  may  be  explained  as  due  to  the  difference 
in  use.  Constant  ball  playing,  punching  and  thrusting 
make  up  a  very  large  part  of  the  boy’s  exercise.  His 
clothing  does  not  limit  the  use  of  the  pectoral  muscles, 
as  do  a  woman’s  waist,  brassiere,  etc.  Moreover, 
although  dress  and  convention  have  discouraged  the 
use  of  the  pectoral  muscles  in  woman,  their  weakness 
is  a  distinct  racial  disadvantage.  If  the  pectoral 
muscles  were  well  developed  iirffhe  woman,  we  should 
find  fewer  pendulous  breasts  in  the  young  girl,  as  well 
as  in  the  older  woman. 

The  latissimus  dorsi  is  better  developed  in  woman 

than  in  man,  contributing  1.65  per  cent,  of  the  total 

strength  of  woman  and  only  1.45  per  cent,  in  man. 

The  buttoning  of  women’s  waists  and  skirts  in  the 

back  brings  this  group  of  muscles  into  constant  use 

from  childhood,  while  the  boy’s  clothes  are  always 

more  convenientlv  buttoned  on  the  side  or  in  front. 

«✓ 

The  anterior  and  posterior  deltoids  in  woman  create 
from  2.45  to  1.80  per  cent,  of  her  total  strength,  while 
in  man  they  create  only  from  2.1  to  1.35  per  cent,  of 
his  total  strength.  This  difference  again  is  readily 
explained  as  due  to  difference  in  use,  that  is,  to 
woman’s  constant  practice  of  putting  up  her  hair. 
It  is  common  knowledge  that  the  girl  with  heavy  hair 
cries  with  fatigue  day  after  day  as  she  is  taught  this 
conventionally  necessary  use  of  her  muscles.  An 
athletic  woman  not  considered  in  this  series  of  obser¬ 
vations  tells  me  that  the  fatigue  of  putting  up  her 
heavy  hair  on  top  of  her  head  is  still  so  great  that  she 
has  been  forced  to  dress  it  low  after  repeated  attempts. 


4.  Rich:  To  be  published. 


6 


There  is  no  occasion  for  a  habitual  use  of  the  deltoids 
among  men,  and,  furthermore,  their  heavy  coats  tend 
to  limit  the  freedom  of  action  of  the  deltoids. 

Forearm  extensions  and  flexions  are  better  devel¬ 
oped  in  man  than  in  woman,  making  from  1.5  to  2.35 
per  cent,  of  man’s  total  strength  and  only  from  1.3  to 
1.85  per  cent,  of  woman’s.  Here  again  woman’s  close- 
fitting  waists  and  sleeves  and  the  conventional  view  of 
her  physical  delicacy,  which  would  protect  her  from 
lifting  all  heavy  weights,  might  at  least  partially 
explain  this  difference. 

Wrist  extension  is  found  to  be  1.30  as  against  1.05 
per  cent,  and  wrist  flexion  1.90  against  1.35  per  cent, 
in  favor  of  woman.  This  is  readily  explained  by  the 
constant  small  movements  in  sewing,  knitting,  etc., 
which  form  a  large  part  of  woman’s  occupation.  Piano 


TABLE  3.- 

-PERCENTAGES  IN 

HIP  AND 

KNEE  EXTENSION 

AND  FLEXIONS 

Hip 

Hip 

Knee 

Knee 

Extension 

Flexion 

Extension 

Flexion 

Per  Cent. 

Per  Cent. 

Per  Cent. 

Per  Cent. 

Men  . 

.  3.70 

3.20 

3.30 

1.75 

Women  .  . . 

.  3.42 

2.69 

3.175 

1.30 

playing  also  is  probably  more  frequent  among  women 
than  among  men. 

The  result  of  difference  in  use  is  especially  well 
illustrated  in  a  brief  consideration  of  dorsal  flexion. 
Children  between  5  and  16  years  of  age  show  3.20  per 
cent.,  women  3.07  per  cent.,  and  men  2.85  per  cent,  of 
their  total  strength.  Strapping  the  foot  to  the  stiff 
unyielding  sole  of  modern  shoes  might  account  for  the 
falling  off  in  power  of  these  muscles  in  the  adult.  That 
woman  has  considerably  more  power  than  man  may 
be  due  to  the  fact  that  she  is  more  commonly  trained 
in  dancing,  as  was  the  case  in  this  series  of  college 
women  as  compared  with  college  men. 

Inversion  shows  little  difference  between  men  and 
women,  the  percentages  being  1.90  for  ngen  and  1.95 
for  women.  Eversion  makes  1.80  per  cent,  of  the  total 
strength  in  man  and  1.935  in  woman.  Again  the  fact 
that  a  large  percentage  of  these  women  had  some 
training  in  esthetic  dancing  may  be  a  factor  in  the 
difference. 

Adduction  is  responsible  for  1.60  per  cent,  in  man 
and  1.68  per  cent,  in  woman.  This  may  possibly  be 


7 


influenced  by  the  conventional  requirement  of  ladylike 
behavior,  which  demands  that  a  woman’s  knees  be 
kept  together. 

Abduction  causes  little  difference,  being  1.50  per 
cent,  of  man’s  total  strength  and  1.475  per  cent,  of 
woman’s. 

The  most  striking  difference  is  found  in  the  hip  and 
knee  extensions  and  flexions,  shown  in  Table  3. 

The  limitation  of  movement  due  to  the  skirt  and 
the  consequent  limitation  of  activities  will  probably 
fully  account  for  this  difference.  A  superficial  com¬ 
parative  study  of  Case  41,  who  grew  up  in  overalls 
until  she  was  12  years  old,  having  the  same  activities 
as  her  brother,  may  be  profitable  in  discussing  this 
point.  Results  of  the  comparison  may  be  observed 
in  Table  4. 

Case  41,  although  a  most  perfect  feminine  type, 
shows  only  slight  variation  from  her  brother  in  hip 
extensions  and  flexions,  considered  either  in  pounds 

TABLE  4.— COMPARISON  OF  CASE  47  AND  HER  BROTHER 

Hip  Hip  Knee  Knee 


V 

Extension 

Flexion 

Extension 

Flexion 

Lb. 

°/o 

Lb. 

%• 

Lb. 

% 

Lb. 

% 

Case  41  . 

155 

4.41 

95 

2.85 

113 

3.21 

50.5 

1.43 

Brother  14  months  older. 

159 

4.41 

102 

2.80 

113 

3.14 

62 

1.72 

or  in  percentage  distribution.  She  has  worn  skirts 
only  four  years. 

The  effect  of  the  limitation  of  skirts  is  well  illus¬ 
trated  in  Case  37,  whose  extensions  and  flexions  are 
considered  in  Table  5.  Here  we  have  a  woman  more 
than  50  years  old  who  has  used  a  bicycle  over  a  long 
period  of  years,  often  riding  as  many  as  3,000  miles 
in  a  single  year.  We  find  her  hip  and  knee  extensors 
with  a  percentage  distribution  of  her  total  strength 
exceeding  the  men  athletes,  while  because  of  the  limita¬ 
tion  of  skirts  extending  over  a  great  many  years,  hip 
and  knee  flexors  show  a  percentage  distribution  falling 
considerably  below  the  percentage  distribution  in  the 
group  of  college  women  who  belong  to  a  later  period, 
when  the  limitation  of  skirts  is  less  continuously  opera¬ 
tive.  This  case  emphasizes  the  effect  of  use  or  disuse 
as  a  determining  factor. 

From  this  hasty  survey  of  the  data  concerning  the 
muscular  strength  of  college  women,  certain  tentative 
conclusions  are  suggested : 


8 


There  is  no  difference  in  the  muscular  strength  of 
women  and  men  which  is  due  to  sex  as  such.  Such 
differences  as  are  frequently  found  are  due  to  differ¬ 
ences  in  the  use  of  the  muscles,  brought  about  by  the 
conventional  limitations  of  activity  or  by  dress. 
Marked  overweight  or  marked  underweight  tends  to 
lower  the  strength  factor,  as  does  also  lack  of  coordi¬ 
nation,  which  is  too  frequently  found  in  women  and 
exaggerated  by  their  scant  physical  activity  in  child¬ 
hood.  The  effects  of  muscular  training  persist  long 

TABLE  5.— PERCENTAGES  IN  A  COMPARATIVE  STUDY  OF 
HIP  AND  KNEE  FLEXIONS  AND  EXTENSIONS 

Hip  Hip  Knee  Knee 

Extension  Flexion  Extension  Flexion 

Per  Cent.  Per  Cent.  Per  Cent.  Per  Cent. 
Case  37  (age  53%>  years)  3.93  2.425  3.61  1.195 

Average  percentage  ath¬ 
letic  men  .  3.70  3.20  3.30  1.75 

Average  percentage  women  3.42  2.69  3.175  1.30 

after  the  particular  exercise  has  ceased.  A  high  degree 
of  muscular  power  in  a  woman  in  no  way  lessens  her 
racial  efficiency.  Lack  of  muscular  power,  as  in  the 
pectoral  muscles,  may  be  a  distinct  racial  disability. 

It  has  been  shown  that  periodic  disability  in  a  woman 
when  no  organic  disease  exists  is  readily  eliminated.5 
We  may  therefore  conclude  that  sex  is  not  necessarily 
a  disability,  and  that  if  some  method  be  found  of 
adjusting  work  to  the  individual  strength  under  proper 
hygienic  conditions,  without  reference  to  sex,  there  is 
no  reason  why  the  potential  power  of  woman  may  not 
be  used  without  danger  of  lessening  her  racial 
efficiency. 


5.  Mosher,  C.  D. :  A  Physiologic  Treatment  of  Congestive  Dysmenor¬ 
rhea  and  Kindred  Disorders  Associated  with  Menstrual  Function,  The 
Journal  A.  M.  A.,  April  25,  1914,  pp.  1297-1301;  Health  and  the  Woman 
Movement,  National  Board  Y.  W.  C.  A.,  1915. 


Reprinted  from  The  Journal  of  the  American  Medical  Association 
Jan.  19,  U1S,  V  ol.  0,  pp.  140-142 


Copyright,  1917 

American  Medical  Association,  535  N.  Dearborn  St.,  Chicago 


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